TFY-Chapter 12

Chapter 12: Deductive Reasoning

1. Deduction is the subject of formal logic, whose main concern is with creating forms that demonstrate reasoning.

2. Logic has its own technical vocabulary, for example, argument, claim, hidden premise or conclusion, hypothesis, syllogism, valid, propositions.

3. Deductive reasoning is the process of starting with one or more statements called premises and investigating what conclusions necessarily follow from these premises.

4. Deductive and inductive reasoning are not isolated pursuits but are mentally interwoven both in major and mundane problem solving.

5. The standardized language of syllogisms allows a reduction of everyday language into verbal equations.

6. It is possible to infer the rules of valid and invalid reasoning from the study of models.

TFY-Chapter 11

Chapter 11: Inductive Reasoning and Inductive Fallacies

1. The either fallacy, or false dilemma, is an argument that oversimplifies a situation, asserting that there are only two choices, when actually other alternatives exist.

2. Hasty generalization is the fallacy of basing a conclusion on insufficient evidence.

3. Inconsistency in evidence is the fallacy of offering evidence that contradicts the conclusion.

4. The questionable statistic is the statistic that is either unknowable or unsound.

5. The false analogy is a comparison of two things that have some similarities but also
significant differences that are ignored for the sake of the argument.

6. The slippery slope is the fallacy of claiming without sufficient proof that permitting one event to occur would lead to a chain reaction that could be stopped.

7. False cause is the fallacy of claiming there is a causal connection between events without reasonable evidence to support the claim.

TFY-Chapter 10

Chapter 10: Fallacies

1. Misleading euphemism are words that hide meaning by wrapping a less acceptable idea in positive or neutral connotations.

2. Appeals to fear and pity seek to persuade through affecting emotions rather than through sound rational support for an argument.

3. Word ambiguity uses undefined and vague words in an argument, seeking to gain an advantage by using words that could be interpreted in more than one way.

4. Appeal to false authority seeks to influence others by citing phony or inappropriate authorities. This false authority might be a person, a tradition, or conventional wisdom.

5. Prejudicial language persuades through the use of loaded words that convey a bias while pretending to convey objective information.

6. Poisoning the well seek to prejudice others against a person, group, or idea and prevent their positions from being heard. This technique seeks to remove the neutrality necessary for
listening and to implant prejudice instead.

7. Person attack refuses another argument by attacking the opponent rather than addressing the argument itself. This fallacy can take form of using abusive language or name-calling.

8. Circular reasoning is the assertion or repeated assertion of a conclusion as though the conclusion were a reason.

9. The red herring is a ploy of distraction. It makes a claim, and then instead of following through with support, it minimizes the issue or attention into irrelevant issues.

TFY-Chapter 9

Chapter 9: Argument

1. Argument is an active endeavor that requires involvement, interaction with questions, and evaluation.

2. The analysis of arguments in terms of their reasons and conclusions applies to both inductive and deductive arguments. Reasons include data, evidence, while conclusions include hypotheses.

3. The questions asked in the critical reading of arguments are:

1) What viewpoint is the source of this argument?

2) What is the issue of controversy?

3) Is it an argument or a report?

4) What are the argument’s strengths and weaknesses?

4. Reasons Support conclusions. They may be generalizations that could function as conclusion in another context.

5. The conclusion is the last step in a reasoning process. Although, it may stated at any time during an argument.

6. The analysis of arguments in terms of their reasons and conclusions applies to both inductive and deductive arguments. Reasons include data, evidence, while conclusions include hypotheses.

7. Questions guidelines for analyzing the strengths and weaknesses of arguments:

• Are the reasons adequate to support the conclusion?
• Are there any hidden assumptions?
• Are any central words ambiguous or slanted so as to incite prejudice?
• Are there fallacies of reasoning?
• Is any important information missing?
  

8. An issue is a selected aspect of topic of controversy upon which positions may be taken either pro or con. Issues are stated in neutral terms often beginning with the word should and ending with a question.

TFY-Chapter 8

Chapter 8: Viewpoints

1. Viewpoints are something like assumptions, opinions, and evaluations. It can be consciously or unconsciously assumed.

2. Unconscious viewpoints include the egocentric, ethnocentric, religiocentric, andocentric, and anthropocentric.

3. We communicate we know our viewpoint and can understand and respect the viewpoints of others as well.

4. Writers shape their stories through their choice of a point of view. Their choices include third-person, first-person, and multiple points of view.

5. These viewpoints may be omniscient or humanly limited. U.S. politics cannot be defined in terms of simple left-to-right spectrum of viewpoints.

6. In alternative periodicals and on the internet a far wider range of viewpoints is available than on U.S. network television and mainstream publications.

TFY-Chapter 7

Chapter seven : Evaluations

1. This is a chapter about one variety of opinion called evaluations. Evaluations can be openly stated or remain hidden and manipulative. They can be based on explicit or vague criteria, clear or vague feelings. Their effects are powerful. When we mistake them for facts or are influenced by them unawares, we get into trouble, so this chapter teaches us how to both recognize and detach from evaluations.

2. Evaluations are not facts. Factual reports keep that contain unexamined or faulty support. Critical thinkers can support their evaluations.

3. Our minds tent to evaluate situations before we have had time to look them over.

4. Expectations influence our perception as well as our evaluations.

5. Word connotation can be manipulative evaluations.

6. An expert is a person with a reputation for making skilled evaluations.

7. The best defense against propaganda is to stay conscious.

TFY-Chapter 6

Chapter six : Opinions

1. This chapter explores that familiar word opinion and examines the way it affects our ability to think critically.

2. Opinions can take from of judgments, advice, generalizations, or sentiments. Each type needs to be evaluated differently.

3. Opinions can de based either on reasons or solely on whim, felling, emotions, prejudice.

4. Distinguishing between responsibility and irresponsibility opinions based on evidence from
statements based on feelings.

5. Public opinion polls can de used unfairly to determine public opinion as well as to manipulate it.

6. Opinions should not be confused facts.

7. Opinions as claims in arguments, and arguments begin with opinions.

8. In an essay, a statement of opinion can be the thesis or its principle claim.

TFY-Chapter 5

Chapter five : Assumptions

1. This chapter concerns another familiar word, assumptions, demonstrating some surprising complexities in the term.

2. The word assumption is something we take from granted or accept and idea without sufficient proof of its truth or certainly.

3. Assumptions can be forgotten inferences

4. Assumptions can be conscious or unconscious, warranted or unwarranted.

5. Hidden assumptions are unconscious assumption that influences a line of reasoning.

6. Good arguments are not based on assumptions.

7. Value assumptions are beliefs that we take for granted. We may assume that everyone
shares these beliefs or that they contain universal eternal truths.

8. A value assumption can form the base of pyramid that supports many layers of hidden assumption, all of which provide support for one idea expressed at the top.

9. First we have to be alert enough to recognize incongruities, then we need to do the thinking needed to explain them.

TFY-Chapter 4

Chapter four : inferences

1. This chapter explains how inferences take place in our minds. The word “infer” mean to derive by reason, to conclude, to guess.

2. Understanding the words infer and inference. When we infer, we imagine, reason, guess, surmise, speculate, estimate, predict, and conclude.

3. Good writing distinguishes inferences from facts, description from interpretation.

4. Generalizations are inferences. A good scientist, like a good writer, knows how much evidence is needed to support a generalization.

5. Detective and consultants of all kinds are valued for their ability to examine facts and make the best inferences from them

6. Facts and inferences are linked together through generalizations.

7. The topic sentence of paragraph is a generalization that summarizes the main idea to be demonstrated in that paragraph. It is a kind of conclusion, which is repeated again in another form at the end of the paragraph.

8. The exercises help us build our skills in forming, stating, and assessing inferences, in formulating them into generalizations.

TFY-Chapter 3

Chapter three : Facts

1. This chapter concerns some of the complexities of the word “fact”. A fact is something known with certainly through experience, observation, or measurement. A fact can be objectively demonstrated and verified. A fact is something that people agree corresponds to reality.

2. We learn the difference between facts and fiction. What we call facts do not necessarily represent what is real and true

3. Feelings can be facts, and deceive as well as illuminate us

4. Facts are not absolutes but statement of probability.

5. We learn how to determine facts by verifiability, reliability, plausibility, and probability.

TFY-Chapter 2

Chapter two : Word Skills

1. This chapter concerns the process of translating observations into words. It helps us how to use dictionary, learn more about words, and how to use them.

2. Words can help us improve our thinking, writing, and reading.

3. Clear thinking depends on a clear understanding of the words we use.

4. Making a precise match between experience and words involves a complex mental operation that requires a lot of thinking. The more words we master, the more we see and better we can describe what we see.

5. Words enable us to communicate with others and ourselves. It helps us to see and perceive more.

6. Etymology and definitions can help us understand word’s meaning clearly, and also help us recognize its relationship to other words with the same root meanings.

7. Critical reading is an active thinking endeavor that must being with accurate comprehension under bias control.

TFY-Chapter 1

Chapter one : Observation Skills

1. This chapter concerns about thinking skills. The thinking skill is depending on the ability to observe well, so it can help us develop our thinking skill, resolve the problem, and discover new knowledge.

2. Observation is a process of sensing, perceiving, and thinking. It shows us how to observe, and improve our observation better.

3. Thinking is an active process whereby people organize their perception of the world.

4. The observation need to take time, give attention, stay awake, suspend thinking in an attitude of listening.

5. The rewards of observation skills are self-understanding, creativity, rapture, power, and wonder.

Critical Reading - Chapter 14

Chapter 14 : Evaluation Internet Resources

1. Evaluation Internet sources of information helps you determine if they are reliable and useful.

2. Use the Internet sources evaluation system described in this chapter as a tool for assessing websites.

3. As a reader and thinker, become an “ open minded skeptic” by considering each website’s Relevancy, Reliability, Credibility and Accuracy using the following seven steps :

1) Know your purpose.
2) Double-check facts and sources.
3) Consider the sources.
4) Evaluate content.
5) Determine intended audience.
6) Evaluate the writing.
7) Use what you ready know.

Critical Reading - Chapter 13

Chapter 13 : Reading beyond the word

1. Critical reading comprehension involves challenging yourself to understand what you read in your textbooks at different levels of complexity.

2. Bloom’s taxonomy lists six levels of critical thinking- knowledge, comprehension, application, analysis, synthesis, and evaluation- that you can use to deepen your understanding of textbook material.

3. By creating and answering question at each of these levels, you will be better able to predict the kinds of questions your instructor will ask on an exam and better prepared to answer them.

Critical Reading - Chapter 12

Chapter 12 : Identifying and Evaluation Arguments

1. Recognizing arguments as you read lets you critically examine an author’s line of reasoning.

2. Arguments always have the structure of at least one reason and one conclusion.

3. One way to detect them is to look for an author’s conclusion and then track the reason he or she used to reach them.

4. Another way is to look for the argument word clues an author uses to indicate when reasons are being presented and conclusion state.

5. When you find an argument, you should break it down into its constituent parts so that you can determine whether it is well founded and logical.

6. Argument can be evaluated using specific criteria including determining dependability, distinguishing fact from opinion, and detecting fallacies.

7. The two primary types of argument are deductive and inductive. Deductive arguments have at last one premise that logically leads to a conclusion. Inductive argument being with a series of specific observations and conclude with a generalization that logically flow from them.

Critical Reading - Chapter 11

Chapter 11 : Reading, Understanding, and Creating Visuals

1. Visual information reinforces and supplements reading material.

2. Types of visual aids include mind maps, outlines, chart, diagrams, graphs, illustrations, photographs, and time lines.

3. The type of information being conveyed determines what type of visual aid an author will use.
4. Learning how to read visuals will help you to understand and remember the textual information they illustrate.

5. Effective reading and study strategy is to make your own visual aids.

6. To create an effective visual aid, you have to recognize the important element in what you are reading and be able to prioritize and organize them in a logical and useful format.

Critical Reading - Chapter 10

Chapter 10 : Textbook Marking

1. Textbook marking is a systematic mark-and-label reading tool that helps you distinguish important ideas from less important ones.

2. We should aim to mark and label the mail idea, important details, and new vocabulary in our textbook chapters.

3. Always mark information that is unclear, to remind ourselves to find what it mean before we are test on the material.

4. A personalized system will work well as long as it is consistent, makes sense to us and achieves the main gold of textbook marking showing the relationships between ideas in what we read.

Critical Reading - Chapter 9

Chapter 9 : Using Preview, Study-Read, and Review (PSR) Strategies

1. The PSR technique ( preview, study-read, and review) requires that we question ourselves before, during, and after we read.

2. It encourages us to participate in reader-author conversation rather than to read passively.
we also add what we know to the conversation by recalling related information.

3. The PSR technique also requires us to respond to readings by writing in our journal.

4. Commenting in writing help we to understand the material on our own or alert us to the fact that we need to ask a classmate or our instructor for help.

Critical Reading - Chapter 8

Chapter 8 : Textbook Methods of Organization

1. Being able to recognize organizational methods ( listing, analysis, cause/effect, comparison, contrast, definition/example, and sequence)

2. It helps us understand the ideas in our textbooks and how they are connected to each other because the will fit into logical patterns we are already familiar with.

3. It will also help us to remember what we have read, because we are not memorizing facts in isolation, but relating them to each other to from patterns that hold and organize them in our memory.

4. A useful way to identify an author’s method of organization is to look for the organizational word clues (OWCs)

Critical Reading - Chapter 7

Chapter 7 : Using inference to identify implied main ideas

1. You should not only to read and understand what is explicitly stated on the page, but also to detect ideas that are implied or indirectly stated.

2. In order to completely understand a reading assignment, you need to read the material and combine what is stated with additional information you generate using inference as a tool.

3. You also need to understand how an author’s purpose, tone, and use of key words and emotive language can be used as clues to his or her implied main idea.

Critical Reading - Chapter 6

Chapter 6 : Finding support detail

1. Supporting details are arms and legs of the main idea that help readers understand author’s ideas and arguments.

2. Supporting is usually presented as facts, opinions, examples, illustrations, explanations. If you are able to distinguish between major and minor supporting details in a reading passage, it means you understood what you read.

3. Being able to identify the main ideas and supporting details will help you evaluate what is most important and determine what you need to remember for tests.

Critical Reading - Chapter 5

Chapter 5 : Locating state main ideas

1. The ability to locate an author’s main idea is a key to understand your reading.

2. The main idea is the more specific controlling idea of a piece of writing.

3. The topic is the most general idea and the details, which are the most specific, support and illustrate the main idea.

4. Questioning yourself, looking in the usual places, noticing clue words, and categorizing an author’s points are four strategies you can use to think systematically about what you read.

5. Some main ideas are stated directly in a reading and are easy to identify. Others are implied, and you must inter their meaning from the reading and then restate them in your own words.

Critical Reading - Chapter 4

Chapter 4 : Manage your reading time

1. Understanding should be your main reading goal, not how fast you read.

2. Develop a general study schedule that show specifically when you plan to study for each class and for how long.

3. After using a study schedule and daily reading plan for 2-3 weeks you will become more efficient reader: reading quickly when appropriate, skimming, regressing or reading, sub vocalizing, pacing.

Critical Reading - Chapter 3

Chapter 3 : Remembering what your read

1. The 3 primary stages in the memory process are
(1) sensory memory
(2) shorter-memory
(3) long-term memory

2. Memory is the process of storing and retrieving information. You should know the stages in the memory process, and purposely use strategies at each stage to ensure that newly learned information becomes permanently stored.

Critical Reading - Chapter 2

Chapter 2 : Developing your college vocabulary

1. Vocabulary building is one of most important reading strategies you can learn.

2. Increasing your vocabulary also increase your ability to speak and write well and your chances of getting the job.

3. An important way to remember new words is to use them in your everyday speech and writing. Writing in your Writing journal daily will help you a lot.

Critical Reading - Chapter 1

Chapter 1 : Reading in college

1. Reading is an active process base on an author’s ability to convey meaning through the written word and your ability to extract meaning from those words.

2. A learning journal is an active learning task. It helps you identify what you understand in a reading assignment and what is still unclear.

3. Concentration involves purposely focusing your attention on a task.